Normalization Implementation

ERD before Normalization:

From my analysis ERD above can be found several errors including:

1. No cardinality between BAGIAN entity and PROYEK entity
2. Ternary Relationship between TANGGUNGAN entity and PROYEK entity

According to logic on Corporate ERD above necessarily:

1. Make 1 to N Cardinality betwen  BAGIAN Entity and PROYEK Entity.
2. We can change Ternary Relationship Betwen  TANGGUNGAN ,PEGAWAI  and PROYEK entity to Binary Relationship Betwen  TANGGUNGAN entity  and PEGAWAI  entity.

From Above ERD we can we can do Mapping process as follows:

This is a table:

Mapping’s table explanation:

1. NOPEG is prymary key on PEGAWAI table,and on PEGAWAI table we have NOBAG as foreign key because PEGAWAI and BAGIAN is connected with ANGGOTA relationship,where  ANGGOTA relationship have a with many to one cardinality. So, primary key BAGIAN is become foreign key at table PEGAWAI.
2. Table PEGAWAI have NOPEG as primary key and  Control  relationship that connect Table PEGAWAI with him self,with one to many cardinality,where NOPEG Made SUPERV_PEG
3. Kerja table obtained from the relations between the entities of PEGAWAI who generate and Proyek a new attribute that is an attribute Jam. This table is based on mapping rules ERD, namely when there is a relationship that has a cardinality value M to N, then the relationship is created a new table.
4. Table TANGGUNGAN have NOPEG as foreign key. As we see the ER above, TANGGUNGAN is weak entity, so, TANGGUNGAN have NOPEG as foreign key from table PEGAWAI.

Based on the above mapping, we can make the normalization of the table:

1NF

Pegawai Table:

Bagian Table:

Proyek Table:

Kerja Table:

Tanggungan Table:

2NF

• Pegawai Table

After 2 NF process we have pegawai table as following as:

FD 1 :

FD 2 :

FD 3 :

• Bagian Table

After 2 NF process we have bagian table as following as:

FD 1: 

FD 2 : 

• Proyek Table

After 2 NF process we have proyek table as following as:

FD 1: 

FD 2: 

• Tanggungan Table

After 2 NF process we have Tanggungan table as following as:

FD 1: 

Tanggungan table Explanation : Tanggungan table does not change because each attribute on the table very well depend on the primary key.

• Kerja Table:

After 2 NF process we have Kerja table as following as:

3NF

Just 1 table that process until Third Normal Form(3NF) That table is Pegawai table because there are non-primary key attribute is dependent on the non primary key attribute.

So we can decomposition table to be:

NORMALIZATION

Database Design Process (Review)

Gathering user / business’s requirement

• Develop E-R Model bases by user / business’s requirements
• Convert E-R Model to relationship gatherings (table)
• Relationship Normalization to remove anomali
• Implementation to database by make table for each relationship already most normalization

One relational’s data base can consisting of one table or more. If table more than one therefore that table interactions mutually, that called Relationship’s terminology.

If one table consisting of attribut what do come from entity’s kind that has degree one to many or even many to many therefore may ensure that table was not normal yet.

What does it mean? Its mean in table that will happen redundancy that can be anomali insert, anomali update and anomali delete.

Normalization constitutes a process to change a table that has

given problem into two tables or more that no longer has problem

one particular. Normalization can be used by database designer to do verification

to table that is made.

Why done by normalization?

– maximizing table structures

– Increasing speed

– Removing same data inclusion

– More efficient in storage media purpose

– Reducing redundansi

– Avoiding anomali( insertion anomalies , deletion anomalies , anomalies’s update ).

Increased data integrity.

One table is said well (efficient) or normal if pock 3 criterions as follows:

– If there is decomposition table, therefore decomposition it shall be secured safe( Lossless Join Decomposition ). Its mean, after that table is untied / at decomposition becomes new tables, that new tables can result tables originally equally a hair’s breadth.

– Its petted dependable functional at the moment data change (Dependency Preservation).

– Don’t breach Boyce Code Form’s Normal (BCNF)

If drd criterion (BCNF) can’t be accomplished, therefore at least that table not breach drd phase Normal Form (Normal 3rd is Form / 3NF).

Functional dependency

Functional dependency :Attribute B has a functional dependency on attribute A (i.e., A → B) if, for each value of attribute A, there is exactly one value of attribute B. If value of A is repeating in tuples then value of B will also repeat.

In our example: Employee Address has a functional dependency on Employee ID, because a particular Employee ID value corresponds to one and only one Employee Address value. (Note that the reverse need not be true: several employees could live at the same address and therefore one Employee Address value could correspond to more than one Employee ID. Employee ID is therefore not functionally dependent on Employee Address.) An attribute may be functionally dependent either on a single attribute or on a combination of attributes. It is not possible to determine the extent to which a design is normalized without understanding what functional dependencies apply to the attributes within its tables; understanding this, in turn, requires knowledge of the problem domain. For example, an Employer may require certain employees to split their time between two locations, such as New York City and London, and therefore want to allow Employees to have more than one Employee Address. In this case, Employee Address would no longer be functionally dependent on Employee ID.

More example:

Pembeli èKota

{Pembeli,Barang}èJumlah

{Pembeli, Barang}èKota

{Pembeli,Barang}è{Jumlah, Kota}

First Normal Form (1NF)

A relationship is said have accomplished Normal Form

To one if each data gets atomik’s character which is each slice

the line and column just has one data point

example:

KIRIM-1 Table (Unnormal)

KIRIM-2 Table (1NF)

Functional dependable diagram

Second Normal Form (2NF)

A relationship is said have accomplished Normal Form

Both of if that relationship have accomplished First Normal form, and attribute that doesn’t key was hung full to key.

PEMASOK-1 table (2NF)

Third Normal form (3NF)

A relationship is said have accomplished drd Normal Form

if that relationship have accomplished Second Normal form

and attribute that doesn’t key don’t depend transitive to

key.

KIRIM-3 table (3NF)

PEMASOK-2 table(3NF) PEMASOK-3 table(3NF)

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BNCF)

Boyce Codd is Form’s Normal have stronger compulsion of Third Normal form. To become BNCF, relationship must in First Normal form and each attribute is forced hinges on function on super’s attribute key.

On example hereunder exists seminar relationship, Prime key is NPM + seminar.

Student may take one or two seminar. Each seminar needs 2 counsellors and each student led by one of between 2 that seminar counsellor. Each counsellor just may take just one seminar. on this example NPM and seminar points out one Counsellor.

Seminar Relationship form is Third Normal form, but don’t BCNF

bacause seminar Code is still hinge function on Counsellor, if each Counsellor gets to teach just one seminar. Dependent seminar on one attribute is not super key. as like specification by BCNF. Therefore

seminar relationship shall be broken down as two which is:

Fourt and Five Normal Form

• Relationship in fourth normal form(4 NF) if relationship in BCNF and not contains dependency a lot of point. To remove dependency there are many point of one relationship, we divide relationship become two new relationships. Each relationship contains two attributes that have a lot of points relationship .
• Relationship in five normal form(5NF) get business with property is join the so called without marks sense information loss (lossless join). Form normaling to five (5 NF also so-called PJNF (projection join is form’s normal). This case very rare appearance and hard to be detected practical.

Normalization in Real Case:

Normalization on college database

Assumption:

.. A college student gets to take many college class

.. One college class can be taken by more than one college student

.. One college class just taught by one lecturer

.. One lecturer gets to teach many college class

.. A college student on winks particular college only

have one point

MAHASISWA-1 Table ( Unnormal )

MAHASISWA-2 Table ( 1NF )

Functional dependable diagram:

KULIAH Table (2NF)

MAHASISWA-3 Table (3NF)

NILAI Table (3NF)

MATAKULIAH Table (3NF)

DOSEN Table (3NF)

Data: fact, text, measurement result, image, voice, and video that has meaning

Database: organized data group bases a subjective structure

· One data set that saved in magnetic disk, optical disk or another secondary strorage

· Coherent collection of mutually data get bearings of an enterprise (firm, commanding institution or civil personal business)

o Database example on Manufacturing business : production planning data, current production data, ordering data material, etc.

o Database example on Hospital: patient data, doctor, nurse, etc.

Database Example

DBMS (Data Base Management System):

· Group / database affiliate with application software that gets database basis

· Application program’s are utilized to access and maintenance databases

main DBMS function is provide an easy and efficient environment for purpose, pull and laid up data and information.

DBMS (Data Base Management System)

Bit,Byte,Field Definition:

· Bit constitute a part data most meaty little appreciative 0 or 1

· Byte is bulk or group of bit bit that a sort

· Field is a group byte byte that a sort, in data basis utilized by attribute terminology

Field /Atribute

· Atribute is Constituting character or characteristic of an entity that provide detail’s explanations about that entity

· A Relationship can also have attribute

· Attribute example:

o COLLEGE STUDENT: NIM, NAME, ADDRESS

o CAR: PLAT_NOMOR, COLOR, TYPE, CC

Atribute Type:

· Single vs multivalue:

o Single : just can be filled at most one point

o Multivalue : can be filled by more than one point with same type o

· Atomic vs composition:

o Atomic : indiscrete into smaller attribute

o Composition : constituting affiliate of some attribute which smaller

· Derived Attribute:

o attribute that its value gets resultant from other attribute value, for example : resulting age of date attribute comes into the world

· Null Value Attribute:

o Attribute that have no point for a record

· Mandatory Value Attribute:

o Attribute who must have point

Record/Tuple

· Constitute a data row in a relationship

· Consisting of attribute group where that attribute interactions to inform entitas / comprehensive relationships

Entity/File

· File constitutes group from record what do a sort and have same element, attribute is same but have diferent variably in value’s data.

· File type

In application proceedings, file that can grop as follows:

– Parented file

– Transactions file

– Write-up file

– History file

– Protecting file

– Job file

Domain

Domain constitutes group of point that is let for lies in one or more attribute. Each attribute in a relasional’s data basis is defined as a domain.

Key

Key is record’s element that is used to find record that on access time or can also be utilized to identify each entity / record / line.

Type of Key

· Superkey constitutes one or more attribute of a table applicabling to identify entity / a unique record of table (are not all attribute can be superkey)

· Cadidate Key is super key with minimal attribute. Candidate key may not contain attribute of the other table so candidate key definitely superkey but was obviously contrariwise.

· Primary Key.

One of attribute from candidate key get to be chosen / is determined as primary key with three criterions as follows:

1. Key that more natural to be utilized as basis

2. Key that simpler

3. Key that its uniqueness guaranty.

· Alternate Key. be attribute from candidate goes to y. that don’t be chosen becomes primary key

· Foreign Key constitute bungling attribute which point for primary key on the other table. Foreign key will happen at one particular relationship which have kardinalitas one to many (one to there are many) or many to many (there are many to many). Foreign key usually do ever be placed on table that aims to go to many

· External Key constitute a lexical attribute (or lexical’s gathering attribute) one that its point do ever identify one object instance.

ERD ( ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM )

ERD used to produce a type of conceptual schema or semantic data model of a system, often a relational database, and its requirements in a top-down fashion.(www.wikipedia.org/ERD)

Definition: An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a specialized graphic that illustrates the interrelationships between entities in a database. ER diagrams often use symbols to represent three different types of information. Boxes are commonly used to represent entities. Diamonds are normally used to represent relationships and ovals are used to represent attributes.

· ERD is a network model which utilize wording that is kept in abstractive in system.

· The difference among DFD and ERD

o DFD constitutes a logistic network model that will be performed by system

o ERD constitutes data network model that emphasizes on structure and relationship data

ERD Element’s

· Entity

On ER Entity’s diagram is figured with square form long. Entity is aught something in real system and also abstract where data is kept or where exists data.

· Relationship

On ER diagram relationship can be figured by one lozenged. Relationship is subjective artless one be become among entitas. In a general way given by name by basic job word so making easy to do its relationship perusal.

· Relationship Degree

are total entitay who participates in one relationship. Degree that frequent being used in ERD.

· Attribute

are character or characteristic of every entity and also relationship

· Kardinality

pointing out tupel’s optimum that can have relation with entitay on another entity .

Relationship Degree

· Unary Relationship

are model relationship that happening among entity what come from same entity set.

· Binary Relationship

are model relationship that happening among 2 entity.

· ternary Relationship

constituting relationship among instance of 3 entity types unilateral.

Kardinality

· Available 3 kardinality relationships which is

– One to One: Relationship level one to one stated with one instance on first entity, just has one relationship with one instance on secondly entity conversely.

– One to Many or Many To One: Relationship level one to many is same with many to one depending of tenor which that relationship is seen. To one instance on first entity gets to have many relationship with instance on secondly entity, if contrariwise one instance on entitas just secondly gets to have relationship with one instance on first Entity.

– Many To Many: happening if each instance on one entity has many relationship with instance on another entity.

Kardinality example:

ER diagram Notation

ERD Example:

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

Data-Flow Diagram (DFD) is a graphical representation of the “flow” of data through an information system. It differs from the flowchart as it shows the data flow instead of the control flow of the program.

A data-flow diagram can also be used for the visualization of data processing (structured design). (www.wikipwdia.org/data flow diagram)

A data-flow diagram use to make easy delineation a system a new one that will be developed logically without care physical environmentally where that data is adrift or environmentally physical where that data will be kept, therefore we utilize Flow’s Data or Data flow diagram diagram. Diagram grooves data constitute tool that adequately popular present, since gets to figure data current in a system with most structure and is clear, that is why DFD constitute the most assistive tool necessary for a system analyst. DFD purpose as tool of system display popularized by Tom DeMarco (1978) and Gane & Sarson (1979) by use of analisis sitem’s method approaching most structure (structured system analysis method). DFD that figured can auto and also manual system by use of image which gets graph network form.

Data-Flow Diagram (DFD)

· Also Called Data Flow Diagram (DFD)

· Figuring system division into smaller module

· Making user that have no a lot of knowledge of computer for understands system who will be develop

Data Flow Diagram Consisting of:

1. Context Diagram:

· Consisting of one process and figures scope of a system

· Constituting supreme level from DFD that what does figure all input that goes to system and output of system

· System drew the line by boundary (figured by dotted line)

May not there is stored (storage)

2. Zero Diagram:

· Figuring process from DFD

· Giving view thoroughly about handled system, figured out function or aught main process, data flow and eskternal entity

· On this level is enabled avaliable of data storage’s

· To process that don’t elaborated again on next level therefore enhanced symbol ‘ * ’ or ‘ p ’ at the end process numbers

· Balance input and output (balancing) among diagram 0 by context diagram must be petted

3. Detail Diagram

· Constituting diagram that describes to process whats aught on zero diagram or level on it

· Numbering level on DFD

·

In one level advisable has no is more than 7 processes and maximal 9, if more therefore has to be done a decomposition

4. Process Spesification

· Each process on DFD must have process specification .

· On top level methodics that is use to figure process can by use of descriptive sentence

· On more detail level which is on lowermost process (functional primitive) needing more structure specification .

· Specification processes will be guidance for programmer in make a program (coding)

Method that is utilized in specification processes: breakdown of process in shaped story, table decision , tree decision.

5. Outer Unity

· Something system outboard, but it gives data into system or gives data of system

· Notation with notation box

· External entity excluding part of system

· Naming: Terminal name as substantive as Terminal may not have same name excepts the same object.

6. Data Flow

· Constituting place where information flow

· Figured by straight line that link component of system

· Data current is pointed out with aim shoots and lining be given by name on current data which is adrift

· Data current is adrift between process, storage’s data and points out data current of data that as entry for system

Name application guidance:

· Data streaming name which consisting of umpteen flow word to be linked by interlocking line

· May not there is streaming data which its same name and name application shall reflect its content

· Data flow that consisting of umpteen element gets to be declared for by element group

Other rule:

· Data streaming name which turn in at a process may not same by the name of secretory data flow of that process.

· Flow’s data in or out from storage’s data not necessarily been given name if:

§ Simple data flow and perspicuous

§ Data flow figures all item’s data

· May not there is streaming data of terminal go to storage’s data or on the contrary since terminal is not part of system, terminal relationship with data storage shall pass through process

7. Process

· Process constitutes what do be worked by system

· Process can process data or input data flow become data flow come out

· Process functioninging to transform one or many entry data become one or many output data correspond to desirable specification

· Each process has one or many entries and resulting one or many outputs

Frequent process is called bubble.

Name application guidance processes:

· Name processes consisting of job and noun word that reflect that process function

· Don’t utilize process word as part of name a bubble

· May not there is many process that have same name

· Process shall numbered. Number thread as much as can follow flow or process thread, but such number thread doesn’t mean absoluting to constitute chronological process thread .

Data Storage:

· Storage’s data constitute aught data repository in system

· Is figured with a couple equal line or two line with incorrect single-sided sideways exposed

· Process can take data from database or insert data to database

· Name application guidance:

o Name shall reflect storage’s data

o If its name more than one word therefore has to be hyphened

DFD Symbol:

Data dictionary:

· function for help system agent for define detail’s all application and organize all data element that utilized by system so user and system analyst have same savvy basic about entry, output, storage and process

· On analisis’s phase, data dictionary is utilized as communication device among system analyst and user

· On system design phase, data dictionary is utilized to design input, reporting and database

· Data flow on DAD gets global character, detail for more information can be seen on data dictionary

Data dictionary load things as follows:

· Data current name: shall on record that reader that require more explanation about a data current can search for it squashy

· Alias: alias or other name of data gets to be written if available

· Data form: utilized to agglomerate data dictionary into its purpose one time of system scheme

· Data flow: point out of which data is adrift and where data wend

· Explanation: giving explanation about meaning of data flow.

Balancing in DFD

· Data flow that turns in and out from one process must equal data flow that turns in and out of details of process on level / level under it

· Data streaming name which turn in at and out from one process must have with by the name of data flow that turns in at out from details of that process

· Total and entitas’s name extern of a process must to equal total and entitas’s name extern of details of that process

· Things who shall be noticed on DFD who has more than one level:

o Shall available input balance and output among one level and next level

o Balance among level 0 and level 1 is seen on input / output of data flow goes to or of terminal on level 0, meanwhile balance among level 1 and level 2 are seen on input / output of data flow goes to / of process that pertinent

o Data streaming name, storage’s data and terminal on every level shall same if its object with

Prohibition in DFD

· Data flow may not from extern entity directing to another extern entity without via a process

· Data flowt may not from direct data trove make towards extern entity without via a process

· Data flow may not of direct data trove wend another data trove without via a process

Data current of one process directing to wend another process without via an advisable data trove or maybe can be avoided.

DFD Example:

068605083

INITIAL INVESTIGATION AND REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS

SYSTEM CONCEPTS INVESTIGATION

Problem is difference distinctive (gap) among system aim and the true condition of system, with other savvy why system failed to achieve the goals that the system has been determined previously.To know things any kind has already caused system failing,

therefore an analyst advisabling to do investigation earlier before doing action to fix the system.With investigation, analyst can more understand problem and its system flow more visceral.even in detect problem was known about problem but still figuring its outline only. Many reports in the detection problem may not actually be real or can not be solved.

This may be because:

a. Goals that are too difficult or ideal so that might not be reached.
b. The system can not be developed because of lack of resources, attitudes, or both.
c. Measurement system that is not accurate.

d. Statement of purpose of the system that is behind (statement of goals is dated).
e. Gap between the ideal system and the system at this time is temporary (the gap between the ideal and the current system is temporary and will decrease given patience).

(System Investigation Concepts)

In problem solving’s phase, better give explanation about:

a. The formulating condition of the system that runs through the investigation in detail.
b. Getting a consensus that the ideal system.

c. Develop several alternatives to reduce the difference (gap) between the ideal system with which system is running

d. Selecting the best alternative and sell it to management.

task point’s from b until d. will take time that adequately long time comprises

needed cost. To the effect of investigates to be subject to be strengthens

or points out problem that actually happens over and above as trick

an analyst for understands the system depth.

CONSTRAINT IN INVESTIGATION SYSTEM

In do investigation some constraint which often emerges is:

·          Time

Analyst time comes up short resource, so just does play favorites investigation activity. Usually time is engaged cost problem be needed.   

·        Cost

Cost oftentimes that is issued is engaged the duration time for activity to investigation, so management will give cost limitation.

·        Knowledge

Manager is information system tends to enjoin junior analyst that haven't had technical or science membership that adequately, so will impacted on investigation result that visceral subtracted ,ripe or complete. 

·        Politics

Management or particular parties may broadcast issue that its aim to constrain investigation activity.

·        Interference

RECOMMENDATION

Result of investigation is one recommendation, one that one of it is as follows:

o       Don't take action whatever since undiscovered problem.  

o       Doing preserve system for problem what do little.

o       Increasing ability or user skill at deep going or utilizes information system.    

o       Regarding for system modification totally, so needs thinking to substitute it with system a new one.

Placing happening problem into systems developmental plan which shortly be done.

Investigation tactics

Why needs tactics?

· Find all problem

· Knowing its appearance cause problem

· Determining solution in point

Done so all system element can accept solution offer without interupt their activity

Severally tactics which can be done:

Listening system agent opinion 

· Don’t give startup resolving

· Comparing story some bodies system agent to same case

Investigation techniques

Investigation Techniques cover activity:

A. Directly (direct (internal) probes)

Which is to know face to face what happen in environment

user. They allow to notice it direct without via given (interpreter). Internal probes constitutes disordered source (disruptive), since arises distinctive attitude. Internal probes is utilized as a. richer and apologist group of happening fact (truer is of facts’s group). Available three for doing direct investigation, which is with:

• kuesioner (questionnaires).

This tech is felicitous, if in investigation has constraint time and cost. Even gets it from responde passes through blank stuffing. There is things even in kuesioner condition of will explanation it will

variably if is done gazes direct face (face to face interview). Best thing from kuesioner is that of document who can point out happening difference on respondent.

• Question-answer (interview).

This activity need time and specialty. Not everybody can do question-answer with success. Interview can be utilized for question is consecutive exhaustively over and above more flexible according to field condition. Faced constraint is time and specialty.

• Watch (observation).

Constitute internal probe that strong (a. internal powerful probe).

Sit down with system user by undertaking watch with more question specific. Why are you do this activity? or where this document will be moved?. Each question may will get to point out mysterious trouble-shooting.

B. Indirectly (indirect (external) probes)

Activity who can presto do and invisibility of personal’s operational, so gets to know extern or something flank one that disguised of user community. This activity will dominate in the early activity SDLC, hereafter internal probe to deepen.

• Procedural flow (procedure flow).

Prosedure is operational constitutes medium (vehicles) for new clerk

understand its work and employee experience to handle problem.If procedure flow not true,information system can’t run by right ala too. Utilize system flowchart to research the way information as prosedure’s explanation its operation.If there is about problem is procedured, that problem maybe will arise in operational that actually.

• Studying document (document review).

Are by get and gather essential

(critical document). If problem a lot of customer orders’s happening,gather original document source from customer orders that that utilized as data of its entry, displays interactive format, detail transactions, extract and happening reporting fault.

Document oftentimes becomes problem cause.

• Sample (sampling).

Maybe you need information of vendor billing alreadygiving discount upon pembayran, since loss firm while money is is discounted be not been given while paying pause happening.You can involve payee clientele to get information (despite of a lot of transactions). Finally you get to make

data sample list random’s election to one last week,

choose 20 of daily, choose 5 item of each page that hosen,recording information for each 5 item and account rolled out raa and variant for of all transactions happening payment.

• Tabular (Tabular tools)

Called also matrix, which is check register (checklists) to find dispute (discrepancies) in transactions path

CURRENT SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

               Determining current system performance will fin if firm d problem no one performance measurement default system. Too bad, tending firm doesn't update to document walking system. Hence, analyst fix document up to problem investigation system. Current system description covers explanation: 

up to system problem investigation.

·          Inputs

·          Outputs

·          Files

·          data elements

·          transaction volume and action document

·          data flow diagrams

ANALYSIS REQUIREMENT

Intensive interaction phase among system analyst with end user where systems developmental team point out its membership to get comment and user trust so gets good participation.

4 goal that want to be reached :

• Wording comprehensive system
• Figuring ideal information system
• Taking in ideal information system to condition of currently by notices resource constraint
• Giving push to wearing confidence into development system

Method

• Question-answer
• Questioner
• Observation
• analysis procedure
• Document monitoring

Resource constraint Time

• Money
• Membership
• Technology
• External factor

Document is analisis need

• Analysis direction: Relationship with end user, monitoring processes, about problem in data collecting
• Wearing requirement: Real requirement, Write-up requirement, training requirement and new system influence
• System constraint: Wording time and cost constraint, membership, technology and external factor
• Document as instrumental as data collecting, statistical consensus, ala data flow logical and physical, early data element in lexical data.

How to current system condition approaching with condition of system which ideal?

• Making alternative to solve information system problem
• That best alternative is applied one expedient

GENERATING SYSTEMS ALTERNATIVES

strategy choice
Management options to create top-level strategy with all the attention
constrain. selection strategy used is as follows:

Distributed versus centralized processing

Currently, there is a tendency changes occur from the information the decision
centralized data processing to the end-user Decentralized responsibility Centers. Distributed environment in the process, end-user disconnect the equipment,
and implementation of priority development. On the other there is a growing number of end-user to enter the world computer. They try the latest technology without considering the cost, and risk. Without expertise, the system will be in the environment
conservative.

Integrated versus dispersed databases (database system spread)

When organizations use a database system spread, the system consideration has the option of what files are included in the database and the data are entered in the file. Integrated database by the administrator maintain a database of all control data
storage, access and modification. Management decides on the appropriate level with a choice of the designer considers the system with ease control.

Surround strategy of system development

System development strategy is important because many companies have a stack (backlog) of the new system is designed and conditions system that is currently being modified. This strategy allows the system designer differences in language use of the program and run it on a computer different for a full compatibility of the system (a totally compatible system). Strategy around the environment is very important in the problem corporate takeovers, in which one company to get the company and information systems may not compatible with (different).

Options tactics
Management decide now or later, the opponent modifications, and
SDLC configuration. Election was conducted before the selection operation. Eight options on the design operational Design choices are grouped into input, processing, and output. Each group can have the following options:

A. Input

1.On-line versus off-line data entry. Off-line data entry does not have the ability to validate the good transaction immediately. Therefore, the on-line data entry still used in the recommended system configuration information.

2. Keyed versus machine-readable data entry. Machine-readable data entry can increase speed, reduce income data errors, and save costs for worker (save human costs). However require a large investment in the equipment and maintenance.

3. Centralized versus Decentralized data entry. Decentralized entry is faster but the error level high because many users who enter data. Machine-readable entry requires decentralization of income benefit speed in the process of capturing data source (point of sale).

B. Processing

4. Batch versus real-time update record. Batch processing the update rekord long, suitable for centralized data entry. Real time processing costs equipment and increase the speed of the process.

5. Sequential versus direct access to records. Sequential access is associated with batch processing. Direct access to the related real-time processing.

6. Single versus multiple-user update of records. Design a system for multiple-user more complex in security access and update the record simultaneously. Complexity occurs when the speed of the process is important and application with real-time process.

C. Ouput

7. Traditional versus turnaround documents. Traditional document is a document of how to record-keeping system done through the keyboard (key input). Turnaround documents are data collection system to be done through the engine of a document

8. Structured versus inquiry-based reports. Structured report is created in a standard format and provided the routine, while the inquiry-based reports are based on demand accordance with the format of this request. Oftentime inquiry-base report found in the environment where real-time data must be accessed quickly.

ELECTING THE PROPER SYSTEM

Tactics compares: System than cost bases and gain bases relatively; There is 3 A’s system trick is said more superior with another system if:

• A have inferior cost of B and gain both same
• A have inferior cost of B and A. result more gain A lot of B
• A and B have cost with but resulting gain A. more A lot of B.

Several Comparative Method system

· Break Even point Analyisis

· Payback Period

· Discounted PayBack period

· Internal Rate of Return

Cost Category

• Hardware
• Software
• People
• Suppliers
• Teleccommunications
• Physical sites

Cost Detail

Comparing system information cost via system life, projection analyst gets what change cost for the future and there is 3 information system cost models which is Linear, Exponential and Step

Function.

system Information Cost can happen really just and gets too happening chronically.

• Information system cost happening once just which is on-time cost and development cost what do happen while development system.
• Information system cost happening continually among those is recurring cost and operational cost where this cost happens while operating information system everyday

INFORMATION SYSTEM FACTOR

Qualitative Factor That Aim Good Information System Performance among Those

• Reducing fault zoom
• Reducing time to fix fault
• Reducing response time from workstation alternative
• Hastening supplying time information
• Increasing system security
• Increasing record’s source update active
• Increasing wearing satisfaction

CORPORATE STRATEGY FACTOR

• Consumer satisfaction
• Sell zoom increases
• Consumer commitment and vendor
• Product marketing information

REPRESENTATION IS LEARNING SYSTEM

• Doing presentation in few words
• Reducing with technically explanation detail
• Representation is ala is clear with visual’s assistive tool
• If utilizes model to utilize assistive tool e.g. laptop so more informative
• Emphasize gain of information system proposal with severally alternative whatever available appropriate condition which experienced by company.

CONTINUING DECISON OR NOT

• If the company decided to develop the information system, the department will do the next process, namely Design System.
• If then the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) will be terminated.
• Will often found problems with the system and the study and top management will usually ask for the fulfillment of the re-study system.
• Model will describe some of the stages of the repeated and sometimes the information will make a decision before the repeat stage system of study.

With the alternative, the decision to repeat a previous phase or not is Go – No-Go Decision.

System Development

1) The Importance Of System Development

System Development can mean compose a new system for replace old system as whole or repair the old system that there.Old system need to repair or replace because system have few things that is as follows:

1) The old system have a troubleshoot (problem).That problem or troubleshoot can be in the form of:

A. Problem

problem in a old system can make old system can’t operated according to which we want.this problem can be:

- intentional deceit that makes the company wealth and company data truth not well guaranted,

- non intentional error that make company data truth not well guaranted,

- not bidding the management policy that applied.

B. Organization Growth.

Organization Growth make has to be arranged its a new system. organization growth such as information requirement that progressively extends, data processing volume gets to increase, changing accounting principle a new one.

2) To Get a opportunities

Information Technology bloom very quickly,Hardware,Software and Information Technology bloom very quickly then organizational start to feel that this TI require to be used ready to increase information. in emulation of market, speed of time efficiency or information very determining success or failure of plan which have been made to get a opportunities.

3) Instructions existence (directives).

The arrangement of new system can be because of existence of instructions from the company leader or from outside of organization like regulation of government.

2) What are the organization’s expectations after implementing an information system?

3) What is the purpose or goal of developing an information system?

With we developing a new system therefore expected increasing happenings that is engaged `PIECES`

`PIECES` can be enlightened :

A. Performance, enhanced towards performace work result in new system will make the system will be more effective. Performance can be measurement from throughput and response time where throughput is amount of work of which can done certain in a moment and response time is time mean which delay between two transactions.

B. Information, the enhanced of information quality which presented.

C. Economy, the enhanced of benefits and advantages or decreasing cost that happened.

D. Control, the enhanced of control to detection and repairing some faults and insincerity which possible happened.

E. Efficiency, the enhanced of operating efficiency. Efficiency related with how to use resource most minimum extravagance.

F. Services, the enhanced of services given by system.

4) System Development Principle

System development principles:
1. System that developed for management.
2. System that developed is a big capital investment.
3. System need educated people:not always formal education

4. Work stage and duties that must be done in system development proses (System Development Life Cycle).
5. System development process not always massages.
6. Don’t be afraid cancel project.
7. Documentation must existence for guide in system development.

5) System Development Life Cycle

is a conceptual model one be applied in system development live cycle, for other example this cycle also been applied on software engineering. system developmet main step consisting of :system planning,system analysis,system design,system,selection,system implementation and system maintenance. severally Life Cycle model among those:

1. Waterfall Model

The waterfall model is a sequential development process, in which development is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) (www.wikipedia.org/ model air terjun)

Waterfall Model

Waterfall Model explanation:

waterfall model steps explanation:

1) Requirement: on this step we focuses requirement data collecting from company and market. this level the most basic one on system live cycle .if requirement collecting be not good next stage also won’t result maximal system .

2) Design:

On this step focuses on design here design is grouped as 4 which is :

- High level design like what programs are needed and how are they going to interact,

- Low level design (how the individual programs are going to work),

- Interface design (what are the interfaces going to look like) and

- Data design (what data will be required).

3) Implementation,

Implementation is the realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model, design, specification, standard, algorithm, implementation process has been continuation from where did we begin to implementation design that made to into program codes that be read by engine language.

Example: in computer science, an implementation is a realization of a technical specification or algorithm as a program, software component,

4) Verification: Verification this step is system’s checking process if system was walking normal and according to that expected

5) Maintenance, can’t be Inevitably the system will need maintenance because system’s have bug or because even corporate requirement and condition of market has change.

2. Iteratif model

iteratif’s model has resemblance with waterfall model, here we found same processes, like requirement, design, implementation, and testing (verification).

two its models have differences on:

2. Planning step:in this step on this stage we plot whatever company system requirement who will be gathered ,wheter regarding we build new system or upgrate existing system.

2. Deployment step: deployment here purpose has been distribution process towards system that made, in our meaning distributes before system to society hand before do testing, so that we know our system bug.

3. Evaluation step: in renewal process here will return to do process planning, data collecting (requirement), analysis system and design, implementation, deployment, testing and return again to evaluation. if there development again, so this cycle be repeated again.

.

3. Spiral model

Spiral model is a software development process combining elements of both design and prototyping-in-stages, in an effort to combine advantages of top-down and bottom-up concepts. Also known as the spiral lifecycle model, it is a systems development method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model. The spiral model is intended for large, expensive and complicated projects. (www.wikipedia.org/ model spiral)

The steps in the spiral model can be generalized as follows:

1. The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as possible. This usually involves interviewing a number of users representing all the external or internal users and other aspects of the existing system.
2. A preliminary design is created for the new system.
3. A first prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary design. This is usually a scaled-down system, and represents an approximation of the characteristics of the final product.
4. A second prototype is evolved by a fourfold procedure:
   1. evaluating the first prototype in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, and risks;
   2. defining the requirements of the second prototype;
   3. planning and designing the second prototype;
   4. constructing and testing the second prototype.

Spiral model explanation:

1. Determine objectives, in this step we will determine what will be made system, either from also output from it system.
2. Identify and resolve risk, in this step we do identification process, planning and analyze risks may be happen. In identification process and planning, we must define before hand resource, time precision, and other related information project with system that we shall make. While in risk analysis process here we do analysis towards risks may be happen, between management or technical.
3. Development and test, in this step we do engineering process, construction and testing towards system that be made. In engineering process and construction, we do process coding to make a application. While in testing, we do testing process towards system or application that we have made.
4. Plan the next iteration, in this step we iteration process for plan next and or evaluation in the event of request from customer in order to change towards system or application.

In this spiral model, when is process revolutionary begun, system engineer team moves clockwise surround spiral begun from the kernel. Spiral rotation first track produces development from product spesification. Spiral rotation furthermore may be worn to develop a prototype, and progressively develop system version will be increase. Each track that pass planning region produces to setting in project plan.

conclusion :For high-risk projects this might be a preferred model.

6) Approach System Development

there are some approaching in develops system amongst those:

1.Classical approach vs structured approach (looked from methodology that used).
2. Piecemeal approach vs system approach (looked from target that be achieved).
3. Bottom-Up approach vs Top-Down approach (looked from manner determines need from system).
4. Total-system approach vs modular approach (looked from manner develop it).
5. Great loop approach vs evolutionary approach (looked from technology that used).

1) Classical approach vs Structured approach

Classical approach

Classical approach is a traditional approach constitute developing on a priority of the rural the system wich is follow the steps of life cycle without good supplied with tools and tehcnics.

The problems in the classical approach is :

- Developing the software would be hard

- The cost of maintain the system would be expensive

- The possibility of the faults system

- The sucessful of the system not gauaranted

- Would be a lot of problems to applying the system

Structured approach

Because Classical approach there are many fault therefore Structural approach stared use early 1970 when this approach use tools and techniques that was needed on developing the system witch is it structure defining clearly. By this , complex approach in organizing can be resolve and the result of it will be easy to rear, flexible, satisfied the user, good documentatoin ,on time, on budged for the developer, rising the productivity, and fault free.

Example of Structural approach Implemented are at factory and design of circuit for electronic device.

2.Piecemeal approach VS systems approach (depend from the target)

- Piecemeal approach

Piecemeal approach is system approach development that emphasized at one particular activity or certain application. on this approaching application which is chosen without care its position at information system or target irregardless overall of organization,this approaching just care target of that application only

- System approach

System approach pay attention information system as one unity integrated for each application and also pressed on achieving target to the whole organization,not just care target of that application only.

3.Bottom-up approach VS Top-down approach (depend from the how to determine the needed of system)

-Bottom–up approach

Bottom–up approach started from low organisation level where the level transaction to do. This approach is the classic approach characteristic. When Bottom–up approach use in system analist step Bottom–up approach also called data analist.

-Top-Down approach

Bottom–up approach is the opposite from Bottom-Up approach and characteristic from structured approach . this approaching began by defines target and succeeding organization policy done by analisis organization requirement

4.Total-system approach VS Modular approach(depend on how does it expand)

- Total-system approach

Total-system approach is expand the system comprehensively at the same time and the characteristics from classic approach. this approaching set reducing for complexeses money system.

- Modular approach

Tries to break the complicated system to bezrp simple modulo. That can be easier to understand and to develop. Accordingly system gets to be developed timely plotted It is the characteristics from structured approach.

7) The meaning of methodology, method and algorithm

1. Methodology

Methodology is methods unity, procedure, conception of job, rules and postulats that use by knowledge,art or another diciplines.

Methodology can be defined as:

1. The analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline.

2. The systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline.

3. A particular procedure or set of procedures.

(www.wikipedia.org/ Methodology)

1. 1. Method

Method is someway systematic to work something

Method may refer to:

How to do or make something

(www.wikipedia.org/ Method)

3. Algorithm

algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions, often used for calculation and data processing. It is formally a type of effective method in which a list of well-defined instructions for completing a task will, when given an initial state, proceed through a well-defined series of successive states, eventually terminating in an end-state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as probabilistic algorithms, incorporate randomness. (www.wikipedia.org/ algorithm)

example of algorithm implementation : Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brain implementing arithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or in a mechanical device.

The Three Classifications of Development methodology

Functional decomposition methodologies.

This methodology emphasizeds asolution from system into subsystems smaller, so that easier to be understood, designed and applied. severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v HIPO (Hierarchy plus Input-Proccess-Output)

v Stepwise Refinement (SR) or Iterative Stepwise Refinement (ISR)

v Information-hidding.

Data-oriented methodologies.

Data-oriented is emphasizing on processed data characteristic. can be agglomerated again as two classes which is:

A. Data-flow oriented methodologies.

This methodology is based in solution from system into modules based on data element type and module logic behaviour insides system. severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v SADT (Structured Analysis and Design Techniques).

v Composite design.

v Structured System Analysis and Design (SSAD) .

B. Data structure oriented methodologies.
This methodology emphasizeds structure from input and output at system. severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v JSD (Jakson’s System Development).

v W/O (Winner/Orr).

Prescriptive methodologies.

Severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v ISDOS (Information System Design and Optimization System).

v PLEXSYS.

v PRIDE.

v SDM/70.

v SPECTRUM.

v SRES and SREM.

v Chapin’s approach.

v DBO.

v PAD.

v HOS.

v MSR.

v PDL.

9) Mention Tools for Developing a system

Tool those are utilized at one particular methodology usually as pictured or graph.

Graphical Tools for Developing Systems

amongst those as follows:

v HIPO diagram

v Data flow diagram

v Structured chart

v SADT diagram

v Warnier/Orr

Also available tool gets to form graph that its common character which is gets to be use at all methodology.

this tool as charts that can be agglomerated:

1. Chart to describe activity (activity charting).

v System flowchart

v Program flowchart that can be in the form of:
-Program logic flowchart
-Detailed computer program flowchart

v Paperwork flowchart or form flowchart

v Database relationship flowchart

v Process flowchart

v Gantt chart

2. Layout charting
3. Staff relatioanship charting

v Working distribution chart

v Organization chart

10)Techniques that can be used in development system :

Technics to develop system usually nonspecific for one methodology, but gets to be utilized at all methodology. technics applicable among those:

1. Project management techniques :to scheduling project, example: CPM and PERT

2. Tech finds fact :to gather and determines data / fact

v Interview

v Observation

3. analysis’s tech cost / benefit : cost benefit and cost effectiveness analysis

4. technics going meeting

5. Inspection tech /walkthrough.

11)Differences of being system analyst and programmer

System analyst

Systems analyst is responsible for researching, planning, coordinating and recommending software and system choices to meet an organization‘s business requirements.
The systems analyst plays a vital role in the systems development process. A successful systems analyst must acquire four skills: analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal.
Analytical skills enable systems analysts to understand the organization and its functions, which helps him/her to identify opportunities and to analyze and solve problems.

(www.wikipedia.org/ system analyst)

Knowledge and skill that need by System Analyst

1. Must have technical science amongst those hardware,networking,computer language,OS,ang the other software packet.

2. Analytical skills enable systems analysts to understand the organization and its functions, which helps him/her to identify opportunities and to analyze and solve problems.
3. Technical skills help systems analysts understand the potential and the limitations of information technology. The systems analyst must be able to work with various programming languages, operating systems, and computer hardware platforms.
4. Management skills help systems analysts manage projects, resources, risk, and change.
5. Interpersonal skills help systems analysts work with end users as well as with other analysts, programmers, and other systems professionals.

Programmer

Programmer is someone who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. (www.wikipedia.org/ programmer).programmer makes to program bases design that made by system analyst

1) The Importance Of System Development

System Development can mean compose a new system for replace old system as whole or repair the old system that there.Old system need to repair or replace because system have few things that is as follows:

1) The old system have a troubleshoot (problem).That problem or troubleshoot can be in the form of:

A. Problem

problem in a old system can make old system can’t operated according to which we want

.this problem can be:

- intentional deceit that makes the company wealth and company data truth not well guaranted,

- non intentional error that make company data truth not well guaranted,

- not bidding the management policy that applied.

B. Organization Growth.

Organization Growth make has to be arranged its a new system. organization growth such as information requirement that progressively extends, data processing volume gets to increase, changing accounting principle a new one.

2) To Get a opportunities

Information Technology bloom very quickly,Hardware,Software and Information Technology bloom very quickly then organizational start to feel that this TI require to be used ready to increase information. in emulation of market, speed of time efficiency or information very determining success or failure of plan which have been made to get a opportunities.

3) Instructions existence (directives).

The arrangement of new system can be because of existence of instructions from the company leader or from outside of organization like regulation of government.

2) What are the organization’s expectations after implementing an information system?

3) What is the purpose or goal of developing an information system?

With we developing a new system therefore expected increasing happenings that is engaged `PIECES`

`PIECES` can be enlightened :

A. Performance, enhanced towards performace work result in new system will make the system will be more effective. Performance can be measurement from throughput and response time where throughput is amount of work of which can done certain in a moment and response time is time mean which delay between two transactions.

B. Information, the enhanced of information quality which presented.

C. Economy, the enhanced of benefits and advantages or decreasing cost that happened.

D. Control, the enhanced of control to detection and repairing some faults and insincerity which possible happened.

E. Efficiency, the enhanced of operating efficiency. Efficiency related with how to use resource most minimum extravagance.

F. Services, the enhanced of services given by system.

<!–
4 ) System Development Principle
1. System that developed for management.
2. System that developed is a big capital investment.
3. System need educated people:not always formal education

4. Work stage and duties that must be done in system development proses (System Development Life Cycle).
5. System development process not always massages.
6. Don’t be afraid cancel project.
7. Documentation must existence for guide in system development.

5) System Development Life Cycle

is a conceptual model one be applied in system development live cycle, for other example this cycle also been applied on software engineering. system developmet main step consisting of :system planning,system analysis,system design,system,selection,system implementation and system maintenance. severally Life Cycle model among those:

Waterfall Model

The waterfall model is a sequential development process, in which development is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) (www.wikipedia.org/ model air terjun)

Waterfall Model

1. Waterfall Model explanation:

waterfall model steps explanation:

1) Requirement: on this step we focuses requirement data collecting from company and market. this level the most basic one on system live cycle .if requirement collecting be not good next stage also won’t result maximal system .

2) Design:

On this step focuses on design here design is grouped as 4 which is :

- High level design like what programs are needed and how are they going to interact,

- Low level design (how the individual programs are going to work),

- Interface design (what are the interfaces going to look like) and

- Data design (what data will be required).

4) Implementation,

Implementation is the realization of an application, or execution of a plan, idea, model, design, specification, standard, algorithm, implementation process has been continuation from where did we begin to implementation design that made to into program codes that be read by engine language.

Example: n computer science, an implementation is a realization of a technical specification or algorithm as a program, software component,

4) Verification: Verification this step is system’s checking process if system was walking normal and according to that expected

5) Maintenance, can’t be Inevitably the system will need maintenance because system’s have bug or because even corporate requirement and condition of market has change.

2. Iteratif model

iteratif’s model has resemblance with waterfall model, here we found same processes,

like requirement, design, implementation, and testing (verification).

two its models have differences on:

1. Planning step:in this step on this stage we plot whatever company system requirement who will be gathered ,wheter regarding we build new system or upgrate existing system.

2. Deployment step: deployment here purpose has been distribution process towards system that made, in our meaning distributes before system to society hand before do testing, so that we know our system bug.

3. Evaluation step: in renewal process here will return to do process planning, data collecting (requirement), analysis system and design, implementation, deployment, testing and return again to evaluation. if there development again, so this cycle be repeated again.

.

3. Spiral model

Spiral model is a software development process combining elements of both design and prototyping-in-stages, in an effort to combine advantages of top-down and bottom-up concepts. Also known as the spiral lifecycle model, it is a systems development method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the waterfall model. The spiral model is intended for large, expensive and complicated projects. (www.wikipedia.org/ model spiral)

The steps in the spiral model can be generalized as follows:

1. The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as possible. This usually involves interviewing a number of users representing all the external or internal users and other aspects of the existing system.
2. A preliminary design is created for the new system.
3. A first prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary design. This is usually a scaled-down system, and represents an approximation of the characteristics of the final product.
4. A second prototype is evolved by a fourfold procedure:
   1. evaluating the first prototype in terms of its strengths, weaknesses, and risks;
   2. defining the requirements of the second prototype;
   3. planning and designing the second prototype;
   4. constructing and testing the second prototype.

Spiral model explanation:

1. Determine objectives, in this step we will determine what will be made system, either from also output from it system.
2. Identify and resolve risk, in this step we do identification process, planning and analyze risks may be happen. In identification process and planning, we must define before hand resource, time precision, and other related information project with system that we shall make. While in risk analysis process here we do analysis towards risks may be happen, between management or technical.
3. Development and test, in this step we do engineering process, construction and testing towards system that be made. In engineering process and construction, we do process coding to make a application. While in testing, we do testing process towards system or application that we have made.
4. Plan the next iteration, in this step we iteration process for plan next and or evaluation in the event of request from customer in order to change towards system or application.

In this spiral model, when is process revolutionary begun, system engineer team moves clockwise surround spiral begun from the kernel. Spiral rotation first track produces development from product spesification. Spiral rotation furthermore may be worn to develop a prototype, and progressively develop system version will be increase. Each track that pass planning region produces to setting in project plan.

conclusion :For high-risk projects this might be a preferred model.

6) Approach System Development

there are some approaching in develops system amongst those:

1.Classical approach vs structured approach (looked from methodology that used).
2. Piecemeal approach vs system approach (looked from target that be achieved).
3. Bottom-Up approach vs Top-Down approach (looked from manner determines need from system).
4. Total-system approach vs modular approach (looked from manner develop it).
5. Great loop approach vs evolutionary approach (looked from technology that used).

1) Classical approach vs Structured approach

Classical approach

Classical approach is a traditional approach constitute developing on a priority of the rural the system wich is follow the steps of life cycle without good supplied with tools and tehcnics.

The problems in the classical approach is :

- Developing the software would be hard

- The cost of maintain the system would be expensive

- The possibility of the faults system

- The sucessful of the system not gauaranted

- Would be a lot of problems to applying the system

Structured approach

Because Classical approach there are many fault therefore Structural approach stared use early 1970 when this approach use tools and techniques that was needed on developing the system witch is it structure defining clearly. By this , complex approach in organizing can be resolve and the result of it will be easy to rear, flexible, satisfied the user, good documentatoin ,on time, on budged for the developer, rising the productivity, and fault free.

Example of Structural approach Implemented are at factory and design of circuit for electronic device.

2.Piecemeal approach VS systems approach (depend from the target)

- Piecemeal approach

Piecemeal approach is system approach development that emphasized at one particular activity or certain application. on this approaching application which is chosen without care its position at information system or target irregardless overall of organization,this approaching just care target of that application only

- System approach

System approach pay attention information system as one unity integrated for each application and also pressed on achieving target to the whole organization,not just care target of that application only.

3.Bottom-up approach VS Top-down approach (depend from the how to determine the needed of system)

- Bottom–up approach started from low organisation level where the level transaction to do. This approach is the classic approach characteristic. When Bottom–up approach use in system analist step Bottom–up approach also called data analist.

- Top-Down approach is the opposite from Bottom-Up approach and characteristic from structured approach . this approaching began by defines target and succeeding organization policy done by analisis organization requirement

4.Total-system approach VS Modular approach(depend on how does it expand)

- Total-system approach is expand the system comprehensively at the same time and the characteristics from classic approach. this approaching set reducing for complexeses money system.

- Modular approach tries to break the complicated system to bezrp simple modulo. That can be easier to understand and to develop. Accordingly system gets to be developed timely plotted It is the characteristics from structured approach.

7) The meaning of methodology, method and algorithm

1. Methodology

Methodology is methods unity, procedure, conception of job, rules and postulats that use by knowledge,art or another diciplines.

Methodology can be defined as:

1. The analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline.

2. The systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline.

3. A particular procedure or set of procedures.

(www.wikipedia.org/ Methodology)

1. 1. Method

Method is someway systematic to work something

Method may refer to:

How to do or make something

(www.wikipedia.org/ Method)

3. Algorithm

algorithm is a sequence of finite instructions, often used for calculation and data processing. It is formally a type of effective method in which a list of well-defined instructions for completing a task will, when given an initial state, proceed through a well-defined series of successive states, eventually terminating in an end-state. The transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic; some algorithms, known as probabilistic algorithms, incorporate randomness. (www.wikipedia.org/ algorithm)

example of algorithm implementation : Most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs. However, algorithms are also implemented by other means, such as in a biological neural network (for example, the human brainarithmetic or an insect looking for food), in an electrical circuit, or in a mechanical device. implementing

The Three Classifications of Development methodology

Functional decomposition methodologies.

This methodology emphasizeds asolution from system into subsystems smaller, so that easier to be understood, designed and applied. severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v HIPO (Hierarchy plus Input-Proccess-Output)

v Stepwise Refinement (SR) or Iterative Stepwise Refinement (ISR)

v Information-hidding.

Data-oriented methodologies.

Data-oriented is emphasizing on processed data characteristic. can be agglomerated again as two classes which is:

A. Data-flow oriented methodologies.

This methodology is based in solution from system into modules based on data element type and module logic behaviour insides system. severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v SADT (Structured Analysis and Design Techniques).

v Composite design.

v Structured System Analysis and Design (SSAD) .

B. Data structure oriented methodologies.
This methodology emphasizeds structure from input and output at system. severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v JSD (Jakson’s System Development).

v W/O (Winner/Orr).

Prescriptive methodologies.

severally which includes in this methodology group is:

v ISDOS (Information System Design and Optimization System).

v PLEXSYS.

v PRIDE.

v SDM/70.

v SPECTRUM.

v SRES and SREM.

v Chapin’s approach.

v DBO.

v PAD.

v HOS.

v MSR.

v PDL.

9) Mention Tools for Developing a system

Tool those are utilized at one particular methodology usually as pictured or graph.

Graphical Tools for Developing Systems

amongst those as follows:

v HIPO diagram

v Data flow diagram

v Structured chart

v SADT diagram

v Warnier/Orr

also available tool gets to form graph that its common character which is gets to be use at all methodology.

this tool as charts that can be agglomerated:

1. Chart to describe activity (activity charting).

v System flowchart

v Program flowchart that can be in the form of:
-Program logic flowchart
-Detailed computer program flowchart

v Paperwork flowchart or form flowchart

v Database relationship flowchart

v Process flowchart

v Gantt chart

2. Layout charting
3. Staff relatioanship charting

v Working distribution chart

v Organization chart

10) Techniques that can be used in development system :

Technics to develop system usually nonspecific for one methodology, but gets to be utilized at all methodology. technics applicable among those:

1. Project management techniques :to scheduling project, example: CPM and PERT

2. Tech finds fact :to gather and determines data / fact

v Interview

v Observation

3. analysis’s tech cost / benefit : cost benefit and cost effectiveness analysis

4. technics going meeting

5. Inspection tech /walkthrough.

11) Differences of being system analyst and programmer

System analyst Systems analyst is responsible for researching, planning, coordinating and recommending software and system choices to meet an organization’s business requirements.
The systems analyst plays a vital role in the systems development process. A successful systems analyst must acquire four skills: analytical, technical, managerial, and interpersonal.
Analytical skills enable systems analysts to understand the organization and its functions, which helps him/her to identify opportunities and to analyze and solve problems.

(www.wikipedia.org/ system analyst)

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Knowledge and skill that need by System Analyst

1. Must have technical science amongst those hardware,networking,computer language,OS,ang the other software packet.

2. Analytical skills enable systems analysts to understand the organization and its functions, which helps him/her to identify opportunities and to analyze and solve problems.
3. Technical skills help systems analysts understand the potential and the limitations of information technology. The systems analyst must be able to work with various programming languages, operating systems, and computer hardware platforms.
4. Management skills help systems analysts manage projects, resources, risk, and change.
5. Interpersonal skills help systems analysts work with end users as well as with other analysts, programmers, and other systems professionals.

Programmer

Programmer is someone who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. (www.wikipedia.org/ programmer).

programmer makes to program bases design that made by system analyst

In the field of computer science information is data that kept, processed, or transmited.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/informasi)

Information is processed data become more good form for and more meaning to accepted.

Example of information

Example of information is market riset report from marketing is useful for company to set new product development.

Information Quality

Quality of information depended from three things,

First Accurate, second Punctual, and the third Relevantly.

1. Accurate :the information have to free from mistake and express its intention.

2. Punctual : the incoming information at receiver may not lose time.

3. Relevantly : the information have benefit for its user.

information value is determined from two matters that is benefit and cost for get it

information valuable is big if the benefit is bigger than cost to get it.

Information System

information system can we defined as technically as a set interrelated components that collect, process, store and distribute information to support decision making and control in an organization.

System from Latin (syste-ma) and from Greek(sustēma) where a unitary that consist component or element that related to make information or energy easy to flow . This term often is used to describe a set entity interacted. System also be parts unitary mutual connected that stay in a area with has activator items.

(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/sistem)

There are two approach to defining system that emphasized system with procedure and emphasized system with component.

Emphasized system with procedure

Ø System is a working network from several procedures that operate together to archive a common purpose.

Emphasized system with component

Ø System can defined as a collection of components that can interact to reach the objective.

Example of System is Information System that use by system analyst to analyze the grow of market.

Characteristics of system

1. Component

component interact, work together to form one unitary.

system is consist of a number of subsystem. One of system can have a big system that mention supra system.

2. Boundary
Limiting system with other system or with external environment.

3. Environment

Everything beyond the bounds of the system cause influence system operation.

4. Interface
Link Media between one sub system with other sub system

5. Input
Input mean something entered into system can be the form of treatment input and signal input.

6. Output
Result from processed energy and classified to become output which good for and exile remainder.

7. Process
Change input become output

8. Objective and Goal

System has been said success when hit aim or the target.

System Classification

· First definition

In First definition, system classified as abstract system and physical system.

· Second definition

In Second definition, system classified as natural system and human made system.

· .Third Definition
In Third Definition, system classified as deterministic system and probabilistic system.

· Fourth definition

In Fourth definition, system classified as closed system and open system.